=============================================================================
1. Beginners
   Help! I don't know where to start!
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
   Being at the beginner stage is possibly the most difficult part of
tracking, and it's where most people give up. The key is perseverance and
practice. Listen to what others have to say about your initial attempts, but
only listen if you know you'll get an honest opinion from them. Take on board
any criticism, and use it to your advantage. Practice makes perfect, the more
modules you write and sampling you do, the better you'll get, simple...

   - Erm, just what is a tracker?
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   A tracker is a piece of software that allows music to be made using only
a computer and some sound samples. These sound samples are then played back
at varying pitches and with various effects so as to produce music. The
musical data used to describe how to play each note is arranged in a list
like form, as shown below.

    Note   Instrument   Volume   Effect command   Effect parameters
    C#5        1          40            1                01

        C#5 1 04 101    F-6 2 38 330    G-3 3 20 F05    ---   -- 000
        ---   -- 102    ---   -- 300    D-2 3 24 A0F    C-4 4 -- 472
        C#5 5 -- E93    ---   -- 300    --- 3 P0 A0F    ---   -- 400

This data scrolls up the screen, and when it passes the cursor it gets
processed and played. Not all trackers have this same layout, I've used FT2
for the example.
   Trackers produce files called modules, which is usually abbreviated to
MOD. The term MOD originally meant a SoundTracker module, but over the years
it has become a generic term for any type of module. MODs are a sort of
hybrid MIDI/sample file. They contain sequencing information as well as the
instruments (samples) that are used.
   It's actually quite hard to give trackers and MODs a 'definition' that
can be understood by everyone. If you have Internet access then do a search
for 'MOD Trackers' and quite a number of definitions should pop up.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------
   - Choosing a tracker
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   May as well start at the beginning I suppose...

   Choosing a tracker to learn in is possibly the most important choice you
can make. Some trackers have extremely difficult interfaces to learn, which,
if you are only just starting out and have never used a tracker before, pose
an additional aspect of learning that will need to be undertaken.

   There are six systems with trackers that I know of, classified as -
   - Amiga
   - DOS
   - Windows 3.1/95/NT
   - Mac 
   - Unix/Linux/Sun/NeXT
   - Atari ST

   Obviously the system you own dictates what you can use, but the Amiga
based trackers are split up into a few different areas, depending on your
hardware.

   - Amiga
  ~~~~~~~~~
   Ahhh, the good old days, where it all started...

   Amiga trackers are ten a penny, with traditional 4 channel trackers still
prominent. Though many multichannel trackers are available, the majority of
Amiga owners I know don't have a powerful enough system to use them
effectively.
   The first Tracker on Amiga was the legendary Soundtracker V1.0 (later
there was also V1.21 and V1.8), written in 1987 by Karsten Obarski. Compared
to todays trackers, Soundtracker didn't have any special effects.The program
supported 4 channels and only 15 different instruments plus some effects.
   But the demoscene, which just in time switched from the C64 to the Amiga 
noticed, that the Soundtracker was a quite powerful tool and started to make
new versions.
   So guys like Tip^The.New.Masters, The.Exterminator^The.Jungle.Command,
Il.Scuro, Unknown^D.O.C. and Mnemotron^Spreadpoint  wrote new versions and so
new versions of the legendary Soundtracker like V2.1, V2.3 and V2.5 appeared
with extended features like 31 different instruments and more effects.
   At that time, Mahoney & Kaktus wrote again a complete new tracker, called 
NoiseTracker. It implied new editing options and a graphic oscillator.
   But another Tracker hit the scene: This time the program was called 
ProTracker, and it is the most well known tracker on Amiga. Developed by the
Amiga Freelancers this tracker featured cut, copy and paste, a sample editor
and other gimmicks like again more effects.
   Besides that development of the tracker family in the demo scene, at the 
eginning of the 90's, a German software firm brought the first multi-channel
tracker EVER on the market: Oktalyzer.
   Oktalyzer was capable of playing up to 8 channels at one time, but
differed a lot from the look of the other trackers. That is maybe the reason,
why Oktalyzer wasn't such a big success in the trackering scene.
   Then StarTrekker appeared, the first scene multichannel tracker on Amiga.
The program was capable of playing and editing modules with a maximum of
eight voices, but never got a big success. Perhaps because of the fact, that
the hardware of the Amiga wasn't capable of playing all the eight voices at
good sound quality.
   There even existed a tracker, capable of playing 16 channels! It was
called "Face The Music" and was like Oktalyzer a commercial product.
   Nowadays, the Amiga is even capable of editing (yes! not only playing!) of
the legendary PC multichannel format XM: StoneTracker V1.26. Unfortunately
this tracker is commercial and not for free.

   OctaMED SoundStudio allows the use of up to 64 channels at 44.1 kHz in
Stereo, even on an A500 (it won't work in real time on an A500, obviously).
It also supports the use of certain Amiga 16-Bit Sound Cards, such as the
Toccata, Delfina and Maestro. If you have one of these cards and, say, a
68030 or 040, then SoundStudio would be a sensible path to go down.

   - DOS
  ~~~~~~~~
   There are a number of DOS based trackers around, generally each with their
own MOD and instrument format, although most will allow loading of other
formats as well.
   Scream Tracker 3 is a text-mode tracker, with a fairly basic interface.
While powerful at its original release, it has now been superseded by other
more powerful trackers.
   Fasttracker II is, according to United Trackers, the most used tracker at
the moment. This could be down to the interface, which many trackers like due
to its ease of use, being almost completely mouse driven. Fasttracker II has
also been available for a long time now, which would also explain it's
popularity. It uses it's own formats for modules and instruments. It's
instrument format is more popular than IT's, possibly because it's been out
for longer, and also because it's better supported in other trackers.
   Velvet Studio is another DOS tracker with a nice interface. Maybe not
as easy to to use as FT2's, but nice all the same. It is very customisable
and powerful. However, even the latest version is still quite buggy (while
testing it it either crashed or hung the machine several times :v( ), so
think carefully before setting out to learn how to use it. It's very good,
just not very stable.
   Real Tracker 2 is again, another tracker with a good interface. It uses a
Windows like modular environment, so you only have to have what you want on
screen. It also, in the registered version, supports VESA screens, so you
could, if you wanted, run it in 1280x1024 mode. On my machine, however, every
time I quit the program it resets the machine, and there are a few other
noticable bugs as well. Again, like Velvet Studio, think before learning it.
   However, if you don't care about a graphical, mouse driven interface, and
want the most powerful DOS tracker currently available, then there is only
one choice, Impulse Tracker. Ever since it's release it has been slowly
gathering converts simply due to it's vast range of features. However, like I
said above, it doesn't have a graphical interface. In fact, it's interface is
almost exactly the same as ST3. If you've tried ST3 before, and liked it,
then go with IT.
   Digitracker has a nice interface, and contains features not seen in other
trackers, such as two effects columns AND a volume/panning column. It also
has synthsound capabilities. However, I could not get the program to let me
use this, maybe if you register you get them? It has a good variety of
editing functions, especially the sample editor. If you don't like Impulse
Tracker's interface, but want a similar amount of power, then this could be
the one for you.

   - Windows 3.1/95/NT
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   EasyMod for Windows is the only Windows 3.1 tracker available, however it
only supports 4 channel MODs and can only work on a GUS.
   There are two trackers available for Windows 95/NT, ModPlug Tracker and
SoundStudio. Neither are completely finished yet, ModPlug being an alpha and
SoundStudio being a beta. ModPlug Tracker is one of the few trackers that
doesn't use it's own special module format, preferring instead to allow you
to create Impulse Tracker, Fasttracker II, and ProTracker modules.
   Soundstudio looks like being a VERY good port from the Amiga, if they keep
all the features from the original (synthetic sounds, hybrid samples/synths.
How did the hybrids work anyway? I could never get anything to happen!) then
it will probably be one of the best trackers yet.
   Another star on the horizon could be Real Maker, this will be a commercial
product. It should have been in beta a while ago, but it seems like delays
have set it

   Since trackers for Windows 95/NT use Windows 95/NT's sound drivers, you
don't have to worry about using SB compatibilty or using a tracker which
supports your specific sound card. As long as you have the latest 32-Bit
drivers you will get the best quality sound possible from your sound card.

   - Mac
  ~~~~~~~
   Player Pro 4.4.1: Can access the sound chip directly, so it takes less
processor time than SoundTrecker. It'll still work when new Macs with new
sound chips come out, because it can also use the regular Sound Manager 3.0
if necessary, like when the PowerMacs came out and Player Pro didn't support
their sound chip. Only edits its own format, MADF, but it can import and
export MOD, S3M, MIDI, and some other formats I can't remember right now.
PlayerPro has a very mixed track record for some of its more obscure import
and tracking options, but reportedly plays many of the basic mod formats
better than the other Mac heavyweight, Sound-Trecker 2.2. PlayerPro is
shareware and until you pay the $20 registration fee, most tracking/editing
features are turned off (including import and save) and it will automatically
quit after having been open for 20 minutes. A CD-ROM version is also
available for $40, which comes with a library of mods and instrument samples.
Upgrades are free, except for the upgrade from the disk to the CD-ROM
version, which will cost $20 for an upgrade. Unlike Sound-Trecker, it is
fully PowerMac-native, which means it FLIES by on a PowerMac.

   Sound-Trecker: $40 shareware. Partially, but not fully, PMac native, but
it can do simulated surround sound for headphones or (I think...) Dolby
Surround decoders. However, with the Surround option, the fact that it's
not fully native really shows, as you hear clicks when you try to do
other stuff. However, the slowdown isn't that severe on normal Macs. The
two other advantages are that it can play (Octa)MEDs, which Player Pro
can't handle, and some MODs play better with it than Player Pro. Keepin
mind that with the extra features and bug fixes with Player Pro 4.2, most
MODs play -much- better with Player Pro, though, and PP is cheaper.

Rich "Akira" Pizor adds: Sound-Tracker is a shell program which plays formats
based on plug-ins, providing for maximum flexibility, since plug-ins can
easily be written whenever a new format is introduced. Currently, most of the
standard 4- and 8-track MOD formats are supported. Also available is a plug-
in that makes it PowerPC native. It is also known for having one of the
better interfaces of Mac MOD players. The resources for creating/editing MODs
are present, yet the appropriate menu items are greyed out. I've not met
anyone who could explain this anomaly to me. The two theories I've heard are
that you get editing capabilities if you register the program (German ReadMe
not too well understood) or that the resources are simply sitting there while
the author learns how to integrate the corresponding features into a later
release of the program.

MacMod Pro is currently on release 3.22.  It is a complete player and tracker
for the Mac, capable of creating mods from 4-32 channels.  (The jury is still
out on the file type, but it seems to save currently in standard ProTracker
(M.K.) format.)  It features all of the player options of Sound-Trecker 2.2,
and the version currently on the info-mac archives also includes a sample MOD
that's quite good, along with 5 instrument samples so you can get going right
away.
Since version 3.0.1, the help system has been improved tremendously. The
staff editor and S3M compaitibility options haven't yet been implemented, but
these are promised for the next release. The interface has also markedly
improved.  Looks like the author got some help from a more experienced
programmer.
MacMod Pro is shareware.  A $25 registration fee is required to unlock the
Save option, but all other functions work off the shelf, so you can get a
good feel for how the program works and for what it takes to make a mod.

Meditor 0.55 Delta: The first freeware tracker for the mac has arrived!
Unlike PlayerPro or MacMod Pro, Meditor gives you full access to all its
features right from download, so there's nothing to stop you from editing to
your heart's content. It supports all the sound formats supported by
Sound-Trecker as well as a new one called MMF; a Sound-Trecker plug for MMF
format is included, but to my (editor's note: i.e. Akira's) knowledge there
is no IBM-compatible program that supports this format.
   Meditor uses a variation of the "classical" editor, with no option for
staff editing or digital editing. Supports all the standard effects and
octave ranges, and allows up to 32 channels (more in MMF format, but why
would you need more than 32?). Only one file can be open at a time and it's a
little buggy, but hey - it's free.

   - Unix/Linux/Sun/NeXT (Information Needed)
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   Funktracker V1.06 Gold is currently the only tracker available for Unix.

   - Atari
  ~~~~~~~~~
Atari ST: There is a port of ProTracker from the Amiga. This will allow you
to create 4-track MODs.

Atari STE/TT/Mega STE: To create mods on these machines, you basically have a
choice of two programs - ProtrackerSTE or Octalyser

ProtrackerSTE is an upgraded port of ProTracker from the Amiga. It handles
only 4 tracks, but has the full PT command set and gives good quality
playback. (Note there are also a bundle of PT clones for these machines, such
as Esion)

Octalyser is an 8-track tracker. You need a fast STE or a TT to playback
all 8 tracks though. Octalyser will let you create or play back 4, 6 or 8
track mods. It will load many different mod formats, but not S3M or MTM.
Sound quality is quite good.

Atari Falcon030: For creating mods on this machine, there are basically three
main choices:

Octalyser (mentioned above) has drivers for the enhanced sound system,
thus giving good quality playback, but only 4, 6 and 8 track MOD formats, not
S3M or MTM.

MegaTracker - 32 track tracker. All tracker commands and practically all
mod formats are supported including S3M and MTM. Unbelievable speed and
quality are produced by the DSP mixing. Unfortunately, the instructions have
not yet been translated from French, but it is only a matter of time.

Digital Tracker - 32 track tracker. Supports almost all tracker commands
and formats, although it hangs on some S3Ms. this is commercial software and
only a demo is available, which has certain restrictions.

   Conclusion
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~   
   Whatever tracker you decide on using, before you even start tracking with
it, be sure to read the manual. Load a few already made modules in so you can
play around with the various features and find out how they work. Spend a day
figuring out every feature of the tracker.
   The only way to find out what tracker is best for you is to try out a few
and then decide. I would recommend that you choose a tracker that produces a
standard module format for the hardware you are producing on e.g. if you
own an Amiga a MOD based tracker would be a good choice, on a PC an IT or
XM tracker would be a good choice etc.
   DON'T do what I do sometimes and use multiple trackers to produce one
tune, doing that is not advised (if you're interested I use FT2 and IT, FT2
to do the bulk of the work, and IT to tidy up and add panning. I just find
FT2 more intuitive). It makes work much harder, especially if you get
something sounding perfect in one, only to find it sounds horrible in the
other.

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   Choosing Hardware
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   The basic hardware requirements to track are:-

   A computer - You probably already have one of these. If you don't, then
how on earth are you reading this! Your computer MUST have some sort of
digital audio capabilities. If you have an Amiga, Atari or Mac then you
should be okay for now. If you have a PC (and by that I don't necessarily
mean an IBM compatible) without a digital sound card of some description,
then you're finished before you've even started. Go out and get one now!

   Monitoring Equipment - A pair of speakers and/or a pair of headphones.
Since we're talking about basic requirements here, practically anything will
do to get you started.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

   Getting Started
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   Ok, so you've gotten hold of a tracker that you like the look and feel of,
the next thing to do is to get hold of some samples and/or modules. These
should preferably be in a style that you like and be of a reasonable quality.
Just go to the Internet resources section for a list of places to look. If
you don't have Internet access, then any local shareware libraries or BBS
systems should be able to sort you out with some. Samples are preferable to
modules, but it's easy enough to rip the samples out of modules.
   Alternatively, you could sample your own sounds, but this can be quite
difficult to do if you don't know what you generally use or need. As you
don't yet know how to track properly yet, I would recommend you choose
which to learn first, tracking or sampling. This will ease the learning
curve. If you want to learn the key points to good sampling, skip to the
sampling section and when you've finished there, come back here.

   - Ordering your resources
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   First of all you'll need to set up a few directories in which to store
your music stuff. There are many different ways to do this, but I'll describe
mine for you to have a base to build on. Obviously you don't have to follow
this, it's just to give you an idea of a structure.
   In the root of my HD I have a directory called Music. Within this
directory are three others: Mods, Samples, and Other. Mods and Samples are
self explanatory, and Others is used to store texts and such like. I keep
all my trackers in their own directories in the root. Any tools that are for
use exclusively with a tracker are kept with them in the same directory.
   Inside Mods are another two directories: My_Mods and Unfinish, which
should be self explanatory. Mods itself contains MODs written by other
people.
   Inside Samples are another set of directories. Bass, Breaks, Drumkit,
Strings, Piano, Stabs, FX, Vocals, Chip, Temp. I also use directories for
individual instruments (being a dance musician I download as many samples
of 'classic' dance synths as possible).
So the structure of my music directories is as follows:-

ROOT-+-CD2WAV
     +-FT2------+-SHRINKXM
     |          +-WAV2XI
     |          +-XMC
     +-IT-------+-ITPR
     |          +-ITF
     |          +-ITTXT
     +-MUSIC----+-OTHER
                +-MODS-----+-MY_MODS
                |          +-UNFINISH
                +-SAMPLES--+-BASS-----+-JV1080
                           |          +-NOVBASS
                           |          +-TB-303
                           +-BREAKS
                           +-CHIP
                           +-DRUMKIT--+-BASS
                           |          +-CLAP
                           |          +-CRASH
                           |          +-HAND
                           |          +-HI-HAT
                           |          +-SNARE
                           |          +-TR-808
                           |          +-TR-909
                           +-FX
                           +-PIANO
                           +-STABS
                           +-STRINGS
                           +-TEMP
                           +-VOCALS

   As you can see I try not to categorise samples too much. For example the
strings directory is used to hold pads, violins etc. Basically anything that
sounds 'stringy' 8v). This allows me quick access to the samples I want (I
can remember what most of them are called and sound like). I also regularly
clean out my sample collection by getting rid of any that are bad quality -
clipped, noisy etc. Any that I'm unlikely to ever use, or I have already used
and don't want to use again are also gotten rid of.
   I would recommend you start off by creating some sort of structure, it'll
stop your disk getting cluttered and enable you to work more efficiently.
If your running off floppies then use seperate disks for different types of
samples, and regularly defragment and check for errors (this also applies for
hard disk owners).

   - Let's go
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~
   By now you should have a tracker you're happy with, some samples and/or
some modules. Start up the tracker, and load a sample or two in and "jam"
with them. Play around and get used to what keys notes correspond to. When
you have a riff that you're happy with, try inputting it into a channel.
   This can be done in two ways, either in step-time or in real-time. The
majority of modules are produced in step-time, maybe with a small amount of
real-time just to see roughly where the notes need to be placed. If you
have a MIDI keyboard connected to your sound card (Information needed), then
you could use that to input the notes. Generally though, due to the harsh
amount of quantitization that occurs with a tracker you are better off doing
it in step-time.
   Once you've managed to get this riff into a channel or two, and it plays
back sounding all right, you're ready to carry on with the rest of the
pattern.
   Start with the bassline. For the moment try keeping it at the same note
as the lead.

   I would recommend that you try producing a few 4 channel modules first,
use one channel for drums, one for bass, one for lead, and one for chords.
This should help as you'll always be able to see what's going on, on the
screen. If you find you do want to use more channels to begin with, then by
all means go ahead, but bear in mind that most of the great tracker musicians
today started on 4 channel modules...
   Start by writing music that you really like listening to - don't try and
write an orchestral piece if you don't listen to it - it'll show.

   The best way to learn how to do something is to watch someone else do 
it. This applies to tracking as well. You can learn a lot just from listening
to the great ones in the scene. If you come up with a tune idea and you know
what you want it to sound like, it helps a lot to look for a tune from one of
the masters that sounds similar to what you want to write, and listen to
their tune over and over again. Look for the things they do with their tune
that sets that tracker apart from the others in the scene, and if you can
adapt their techniques into your song in an original way, do it.
   Never release your first tune. There are very few people who are gifted
enough to really make a quality tune the first time - it's all practice and
experience! Once you have finished a tune, listen to it a couple of days
after... see whether you can view it from another point of view. Get a couple
of friends to listen to it and ask for some constructive criticism. You know,
what's good as well as what's bad about the tune.

      If you want to make a tune realistic, try to imagine how the instrument
would be played. Pretend you are a musician when you write a part.. Also, if
you use an instrument such as a piano, try to use more than a single piano
note - a real piano will have more than one note playing at a time - use some
chords, etc.
   Originally, people used to sample whole chords to save sample space. Now
we've got these wonderful trackers with gazillions of channels. Constructing
chords from notes because you have the space to do so gives a better and more
a professional sound. However, be very careful! If you decide to construct a
chord rather than use a single sample, some musicianship is required. Simple
major chords are easy, but inversions really add to a piece. If you are able
to do it this way, you'll get a professional, crafted sound. But it does take
a long time before you'll get a smooth flowing part.
   For a nice fill to the sound, try to balance the usage of low and high
frequencies. Tunes with too much bass and too little treble sound rough,
tunes with too much treble and too little bass sound insubstantial.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

   The Effects column(s)
  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
   By now you should be wanting to experiment with some effects, to make your
music more interesting and more professional. Before we start, lets just get
something straight. Effects should only be used when they are needed. Using
effects just because you can doesn't automatically improve the quality of
your music.
   This section will only cover effects with letters/numbers that can be used
in ProTracker MODs. This is to keep some sort of standard. Many trackers use
different letters/numbers to represent the same effect, so check before
trying anything. If you try an effect listed here and it produces a result
completely different to how it is described here, then consult your trackers
manual.
   Effects are typed into the rightmost column of each channel in every
tracker. They consist of an effect command and a value. Different trackers
have different letters and numbers for the same effect command. But pretty
much all of them work with hexadecimal for the value. If you don't know what
hex is, then the following extract, taken from the Impulse Tracker manual,
should help.

   Instead of using a decimal system (ie. base 10), it is more natural for
the computer to work with hexadecimal (often abbreviated to simply 'Hex') -
numbers which operate in base 16. The first 9 numbers in hex are denoted by
'1' to '9' and the next 6 are denoted by 'A' to 'F'. So if you count in hex,
it will be as follows: (0), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 2A etc.
   To convert a hex number to decimal, multiply the 'tens' column by 16 and
add the value of the second column. ie. 32 Hex = 3*16+2 = 50 decimal.
2A hex = 2*16+10 = 42. (because A = 10) The maximum number that you can
represent with two Hex digits is FF = 255 decimal.

   Let's start with the most basic effect, the set volume command: C. Input a
note, then move the cursor to the effects command column and type a C. Play
the pattern, and you shouldn't be able to hear the note you placed the C by.
This is because the effect parameters are 00. Change the two zeros to a 40
(hex)/64 (dec), depending on what your tracker uses. Play back the pattern
again, and the note should come in at full volume.

   The position jump command next. This is just a B followed by the position
in the playing list that you want to jump to. One thing to remember is that
the playing list always starts at 0, not 1. This command is usually in hex.

   Onto the volume slide command: A. This is slightly more complex (much more
if you're using FT2 or IT, if you want to achieve the results here, then set
slides to Amiga, not linear), due to the fact it depends on the secondary
tempo. For now, set the secondary tempo to 06 (you can play around later :v),
load a long or looped sample and input a note or two. A few rows after a note
type in the effect command A. For the parameters use 0F. Play back the
pattern, and you should notice that when the effect kicks in, the sample
drops to a very low volume very quickly. Change the effect parameters to F0,
and use a low volume command on the note. Play back the pattern, and when the
slide kicks in the volume of the note should increase very quickly.
   This because each part of the effect parameters for the A command does a
different thing. The first number slides the volume up, and the second slides
it down. It's not recommended that you use both a volume up and volume down
at the same time, due to the fact the tracker only looks for the first number
that isn't set to 0. If you specify parameters of 8F, the tracker will see
the 8, ignore the F, and slide the volume up. Using a slide up and down at
same time just makes you look stupid :v) Don't do it...

   The Set Tempo command: F, is pretty easy to understand. You simply specify
the BPM (in Hex) that you want to change to. One important thing to note is
that a value of lower than 20 (hex) sets the secondary tempo rather than the
primary.

   Another useful command is the Pattern Break: D. This will stop the playing
of the current pattern and skip to the next one in the playing list. By using
parameters of more than 00 you can also specify which line to begin playing
from.

   The next command we'll look at is the portamento up/down: 1 and 2. Command
1 slides the pitch up at a specified speed, and 2 slides it down. This
command works in a similar way to the volume slide, in that it is dependant
on the secondary tempo.

   Another portamento command is 3: Portamento to Note. This slides the
currently playing note to another note, at a specified speed. Unlike the 1 &
2 commands however, this one stops when it reaches the desired note. The best
way to describe this is to give an example.

   C-2 1 000 - Starts the note playing
   ---   000
   C-3   330 - Starts the slide to C-6 at a speed of 30.
   ---   300 - Continues the slide
   ---   300 - Continues the slide

   One thing you can note about this and many other commands is that is it
has a memory. Once the paramenters have been set, the command can be input
again without any parameters, and it'll still perform the same function
unless you change the parameters. This memory function allows certain
certain commands to function correctly, such as command 5, which is the
Portamento to Note and Volume Slide command. Once command 3 has been set up
command 5 will simply take the parameters from that and perform a Portamento
to Note. Any parameters set up for command 5 itself simply perform a Volume
Slide identical to command A at the same time as the Portamento to Note.
   There are various other commands which perform two functions at once, but
these will be listed later.

   Command 4 is Vibrato. This is basically rapid changes in pitch, just try
it and you'll see what I mean. Parameters are in the format of xy, where x is
the speed of the slide, and y is the depth of the slide. One key point to
remember is to keep your vibratos subtle and natural, so a depth of 3 or less
and a reasonably fast speed, say 8, is usually used. Setting the depth too
can make the part sound out of tune from the rest.
   Following on from command 4 is command 6. This is the Vibrato+Volume Slide
command, and it has a memory like command 5, which you already know how to
use.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

   Sampling
  ~~~~~~~~~~
   Let's talk about all the business that goes on before a sound ever gets to
your computer's memory. Sound in the air is continuously changing, and when
it gets converted to an electrical signal the changes are still continuous.
Your computer, however, can only store numbers using a limited number of
digits or precision. Continuously varying sound is called an analogue signal.
Once the computer grabs the sound, it doesn't have enough precision to store
all the information about the sound in order to perfectly reproduce it. What
the computer has stored is called a digital signal representation.
   Your sound card captures information about an analogue sound signal by
measuring its intensity at a given instant. This corresponds to one single
point on the waveforms we've been looking at. In order to capture an entire
waveform, the measurement process must be repeated at a high rate, usually
thousands of times a second. Since the hardware has limited speed and memory
capacity, there are only so many points it can capture. Any information
between those points is lost forever. This process of capturing the sound in
small intervals is called sampling.
   To play back a sound, we just reverse the process and convert the digital
samples back to an analog signal. Of course, the new signal will probably
retain some of the staircase effect, so the reproduction won't be perfect.

   There are four main things to consider when sampling. The sample
resolution and frequency, amplitude, and copyright (very important).
   The sample resolution is another term for the number of bits a sound is
sampled at. All trackers can handle 8-Bit samples, and most modern ones are
able to use 16-Bit samples as well. Sampling in 16-Bit will render better
quality sound all the time, while 8-Bit can sound the same, most people would
advise 16-Bit samples all the time. The main problem with a lower resolution
is that you are likely to get some or a lot of noise, depending on the
quality of your source. The only trouble with 16-Bit samples is that they are
twice as large as 8-Bit ones. A good trick to use is to sample in 16-Bit, do
all your editing in 16-Bit, compose with 16-Bit samples, then for the release
convert the all the samples to 8-Bit. You'll find you can halve the size of
your MOD this way (But make sure you keep a copy of the 16-Bit version). The
listener may lose some quality, but this is usually masked by the mixing
routine of the player.

   More important than the resolution of the sample when determining quality
is the sample freqency. The sample frequency refers to the number of
"snapshots" of the incoming sound taken per second. The higher the sampling
frequency, the better the reproduction of the sound is.
   So just how many snapshots do we need? If you look at audio specs much,
you've seen CD sampling rates of 44.1 kHz, or 44,100 samples per second.
That's a lot of snapshots! A well-known signal processing theorem (Nyquist
Theorem) says that to accurately reproduce a signal, you have to sample at a
rate at least twice the highest frequency component in the signal. So the CD
sampling rate of 44.1 kHz will capture frequencies up to 22 kHz.
   You might be wondering what happens if you don't sample at a high enough
frequency. Well, what you get is something called aliasing. This sinister
sounding term just means that since the sample points aren't close enough
together, it looks as though you sampled a lower frequency that really wasn't
part of the original signal. Alias frequencies are like ghosts - poltergeists
really - you can't see them but they make a lot of noise. So by sampling at
too low a rate, not only do you miss some of the high frequencies, some of
them get thrown back into the mix as unwanted guests at lower frequencies.
They are audible as background noise and distortion.

   Monitoring the volume of the incoming sound is vital to produce a good
quality sample. If your sampler uses oscilloscopes to "view" the sound then
make sure the waveform gets as close to the top and bottom of the window,
without flattening out (clipping). If your sampler uses volume meters instead
you want to get the sample as near to 0 dB as possible, without going above.

   Now, onto copyrights. If you're not planning on ever releasing a tune
commercially then use samples from wherever you like. It's extremely unlikely
anybody will bother chasing you when they know you won't be making any money
from it.
   If however, you eventually want to be able to release your music, then pay
close attention. If you sample individual sounds, you should be able to get
away with it (especially if you hear the sound in three or more commercial
tunes). If you sample large and/or easily recognisable parts of any tunes,
then get them checked out before you even think about releasing your tune.
After all, I don't expect you fancy paying out large sums of money just
because of one simple little sample.

   Take the time to tune all your samples as accurately as possible. To do
this, play a long, clear, looped sample, then move to another channel and
tune ALL your other samples to this one sample (so they all have the same
reference). Many potentially excellent modules have been spoilt because they
were poorly tuned. Of course, this doesn't count the cases where samples are
intentionally slightly sharp or flat for effect (which should be the rarity
instead of a rule).

   - Overusing Voice Samples
   An extremely common mistake made by even some experienced trackers is 
finding a voice clip that they think sounds absolutely great or hilarious,
and sticking it into their latest song approximately 87 times. People often
do this with dance tracks. This very frequently kills what would otherwise be
some truly great songs. No matter how funny or cool something sounds the
first time you hear it, there are only so many times you can hear it and
still like it. Also, music is about hearing a melody or grooving to a cool
dance beat, not hearing somebody say the same thing over and over again, so
your song shouldn't rely on voice clips to sound good. If you delete the
voice clips from one of your songs and find that it sounds terrible without
them, that means that you relied too much on the voice clip and don't have
enough music. Using a truly funny or interesting voice clip once or twice can
make a good song great, but it can't make a bad song good.

   - Ripping
   There are a number of very important points that should be kept in mind
when ripping samples. Look for samples that sound clear and don't have any
clicking sounds at the point where it loops. If you're looking for a sample
of a real instrument, make sure it really sounds like the instrument or else 
it will sound stupid. Also, the newer the sample, the better. And finally, if
you rip samples, it helps a lot if you e-mail the person who made them to get
permission to use them, but if you don't get permission, AT LEAST thank the
person in the Sample Text. That's just basic politeness.

   Okay, you're probably fed up of reading about sampling and actually want
to do some for yourself. First of all you need some sampling hardware, on a
PC virtually every sound card in existance can do some sort of sampling. On
an Amiga or Atari you're going to need some extra hardware on top of the
built in chips.

   Sample editing isn't really that hard, it's mainly lot of trial and error,
searching for the precise point where the sample begins and ends. It takes
a long time before you'll be able to read a sample like a book.
   This is where tracking scores 100% over MIDI. A MIDI sampler will rarely
have an accurate, easy to see waveform display, and they don't have mice
either.
   Start by centralising, and then normalising the sample. Then, starting at
the end of sample (always work from the end first, any computer will find it
easier to fill an area of memory with 0s than shifting a large chunk of
memory around) zoom in and look for a point on the centre where you think
your sample ends. Zoom back out to the whole view, does it look like you've
marked the right place, if it does then mark from that part to the end of the
sample and delete it. This is where, if you're using Windows, Gold Wave
scores over Cool Edit. In Gold Wave precise positioning of either end of the
the selected part can be achieved due to it's use of separate mouse buttons
to control each end.
   Centralise, and normalise again. This is because the part you chopped off
may have been off centre and/or louder than the part you want. Zoom in, and
look for where your sample begins. Cut off anything before that. Play the
sample to check you cut off the right part, not too much and not too little.
If you cut off too much, then you can simply paste the the data back in.
   
=============================================================================
